Unmanned Aerial Vehicles: Application and Human Factor

Unmanned aerial vehicle, or UAV, is one of the latest aircrafts recently being utilized by the United States Military. Its conception has provided Air Force pilots with assurances of safe return after a combat mission, a feat never before attained in warfare’s history. Since its invention in the 1920’s, several technological advances have been made; extending flight distance and duration capabilities, and pay loading armaments comparable to those of manned fighter jets. Since UAVs are usually controlled by an external pilot on Ground Control Stations, or GCS, it is unavoidable for this system to be faced with human factors, sometimes resulting in mission failures, at times even in aircraft crashes. Unmanned Aerial Vehicles: Applications and Human Factor Recent technology has introduced to us a new form of aircraft in aviation. Perhaps due to the increasing incidents of aircraft accidents during these past decades, which often resulted in the deaths of even the most experienced pilots, airline conglomerates and military authorities had painstakingly searched for the completion of the invention of Unmanned Aircraft Vehicles, or UAV. In this paper, we shall be witnesses to a technology that has the potential to virtually eliminate pilot casualties, whether in war, espionage missions, or even in commercial flights. We shall also see how human factors affect such technology, in terms of control and manipulation of the aircraft, and the causal possibilities of human error in accidents. Background The United States’ Department of Defense defines the UAV as, â€Å"powered aerial vehicles that do not carry a human operator, use aerodynamic forces to provide vehicle lift, and can fly autonomously or be piloted remotely† (Bone, 2003, p. 2). United States’ war on terrorism has put UAVs missions as important in the gathering of intelligence data. Its unquestionable successes in the wars in Iraq, Kosovo, and Afghanistan had opened the military minds on its advantages during wartime. Missions that used to be reserved for Air force top guns, now the UAVs are slowly taking the front seat. UAVs have two obvious advantages over manned aircrafts: first is, they are found to be cost efficient; and it eliminates the dangers faced by the pilots’ during missions (Bone, 2003, p2). Bone cites a number of reasons on the seeming delay of the technology of UAV. One is because the technology to effectively fly a UAV mission has only recently been made available. Another is due to the Air Force’s slowly fading silk scarf syndrome, which gave preference to manned over unmanned flight missions, thus allowing for the UAV to gain more flight hours. Yet another is due to the earlier absence of a global crisis, which could have allowed for a quicker invention of the UAV due to the extreme shortage in the U. S. military of an espionage aircraft (2003, p. 5). UAVs size varies from a few centimeters in length to that of a 747 jet liner. U. S. Department of Defense currently has in its possession five types of UAVs: The Predator and Global Hawk of the Air Force; the Pioneer by the Navy and the Marines; the Hunter and the Shadow by the Army (Bone, 2003, p2). Despite the notion that UAVs have only recently been developed in the United States, it has been in existence in aviation for almost a century. UAVs were first tested in 1920, during World Wa r 1, but the United States did not put it into combat action. It was Germany who had laid the foundations on this technology during World War 2, with the invention of the V-1 Flying bomb. But it was to be in the Vietnam War that UAVs were first used as an espionage plane, with AQM-34 Firebee. Firebee epitomized what the UAV should be: versatile, easy to operate, transportable to other areas, and can easily be converted to payload missiles. In a speech by former President Bush in December of 2001, he had expressed his belief in the UAVs technology, particularly The Predator, as the future of warfare; as stated in a report to the American Congress in 2003 by Elizabeth Bone: This unmanned aerial vehicle is able to circle our enemy forces, gather intelligence, transmit information instantly back to commanders, then fire on targets with extreme accuracy†¦We’re entering an era where unmanned vehicles of all kinds will take on greater importance† (p. 7). U. S. Military U. A. V. s 1. MQ-1 Predator: It is about half the size of an F-16 fighter jet, a tail shaped like an inverted V, and is 27 feet in length and 7 feet high. It reaches a maximum altitude of 25, 000 feet, but for the fitted video cameras to work at its best, it needs to be at about 10,000 to 15,000 feet in altitude. Its take off and landing capabilities are similar to that of the normal aircraft, with the pilot on ground control. The Predator’s main job is airborne reconnaissance and accurate target pinpointing. It is equipped with a Synthetic Aperture Radar, or SAR, enabling it to see through bad weather conditions. Newer models also have capabilities to launch smaller UAVs to carry out varying missions. Each Predator unit’s estimated cost is $4. 5 million, and $30 million for the whole system (Bone, 2003, p. 25). 2. RQ-2 Pioneer: This UAV is the only type on the Navy’s and Marine’s arsenal (Bone, 2003, p. 29). It was obtained by the U. S. Navy in 1986 from Israel after proving its worth with their war with Lebanon. RQ-2 Pioneer is about half the size of the Predator, at 14 feet in length, and its maximum attainable altitude is 15,000 feet. It can remain airborne for 5 hours straight, and since its acquisition, it has accumulated over 23,000 flight hours giving suppo rt to the Navy and the Marines. The cost of Pioneer is estimated at $250,000 to $1 million, depending on the payload (Bone, 2003, p. 30). 3. RQ-5 Hunter: The Hunter weighs 1,600 lbs, is capable of flying at 25,000 feet altitude, and can stay airborne for 12 hours straight. It is equipped with E-O/IR sensor which enables it to fly in night missions. Recently, plans have been made to use Hunter to act as a reconnaissance to a squadron of attack helicopters, such as the Apache and RAH-66 Comanche, to maximize the helicopters’ attack zone. In 2002, a successful experiment was made wherein Hunter’s control was linked to the mainframe computers of the Apache’s during flight missions. The success of the experiment greatly maximized Apache’s efficiency during battle conditions. Weapons payload includes the Brilliant Anti-Armor submunition, or BAT, an effective annihilator of tanks and armored personnel carriers. Hunter’s cost with payload is $1. 2 million, ad the whole system at $30 million (Bone, 2003, p. 33). 4. RQ-7 Shadow 200: Shadow 200, a product of AAI Corporation, is 11 feet in length and has a wingspan of 13 feet. It was strategically designed for brigade operations, thus its range is only 30 nm and has a flight duration of 4 hours. And although its maximum attainable altitude is 14,000 feet, it works best at only under 8,000 feet altitude. The Shadow is equipped with an E-O/IR sensor video camera for day or night missions, and has the capability to transmit data to ground control in real-time. The Shadow cost is pegged at $350,000 while the whole system is at $10. 7 million (Bone, 2003, p. 36). 5. FQM-151 Pointer: All the branches of the U. S. military have, in the past, tried to develop their own type of hand-launched Pointer that measures around 6 feet in the last 15 years, and some of them had been on war missions, particularly in gulf War and Dessert Storm. However, the design officially approved by the Military is the AeroVironment’s Pointer UAV, which weighs 10 pounds, and has a wingspan of 9 feet. It can stay afloat for 90 minutes and has an up to 3-mile operational distance from ground control, within altitudes of 100-300 feet. Pointer UAVs have been best-suited for pay loading experimental miniscule sensors and have been a popular choice for Drug Enforcement Agency, National Guard, and Special Operations Forces (Bone, 2003, p. 37). 5. RQ-4 Global Hawk: This UAV is by far the most expensive ever produced, with per unit cost amounting to $75 million (Bone, 2003, p. 39). It specializes in high altitude, long duration flights that provides near real-time videos of large geographical sections. It is also the first ever UAV to make a successful trans-Pacific flight, when it travelled from California to Australia in April 22-23, of 2001 (Bone, 2003, p. 37). Its effectivity was tested in Afghanistan, when it flew more than 50 combat missions accumulating more than 1,000 combat hours, despite still being on its experimental stage. Global hawk is about the size of a corporate jet, measuring 44 feet in length and weighing 26, 750 lbs. Its maximum altitude limit is almost double than that of a commercial liner, at 65,000 feet, and is capable of flying over 35 hours without refueling. However, Global Hawk’s most apparent advantage is its capability of taking off, flying, and landing autonomously in any kind of weather. Commanders in the battle field aptly call this UAV as, â€Å"the theater commander’s around-the-clock, low hanging surveillance satellite† (Bone, 2003, p. 38). Global Hawk’s pay load consists of a 2,000 pound group of sensors, which is much larger than on any of the previous UAVs. it includes an all weather SAR with a Moving Target Indicator capability, E-O digital camera, IR sensor, and a Signals Intelligence Sensor, or SIGINT, making it a virtually multi-intelligence UAV (Bone, 2003, p. 8). As a testament to its technological superiority, Global Hawk’s radar-sensors and IR cameras were able to accurately pinpoint Iraqi targets in March 24-27, of 2002, despite of having a near-zero visibility on the ground due to a relentless sandstorm in Iraq. 6. Unmanned Combat Air Vehicle: UCAV is the first ever unmanned aero-system designed primarily and purely for combat missions. It is similar in size to the Air Force’s Predator, at 27 feet in length and a wingspan of 34 feet. Equal to manned fighter jets in weaponry and stealth capabilities, the U. S. Armed Forces plan on having one-third of its deep-strike fighter jets be unmanned by the year 2010 (Bone, 2003, p. 42). Due to its 1,000 to 3,000 pound-weapons payload, UCAV’s primary combat mission would be SEAD, or Suppression of Enemy Air Defense, to be followed by precision targeting of enemy installations. 7. Vertical Takeoff and Landing Tactical UAV: Commonly known as VTUAV Fire Scout, it is a helicopter-looking design intended as a replacement for the Pioneer. It is about 23 feet in length, with a maximum altitude of 20,000 feet and maximum flight duration of 6 hours. Its maximum distance of operations is 110 nm from the control ship and has a speed of 115 knots (Bone, 2003, p. 43). UTUAV Fire Scout, unlike the Pioneer which utilizes a net in order to be recovered in a ship, ha the capability of autonomously taking off and landing through the use of sensors. Fire Scout is an unmanned equivalent of the commercial-use Schweitzer helicopter, it ahs an E-O/IR sensor that also serves as a laser targeting designator. It is also capable of mine-detecting, and is equipped with Hellfire missiles. Fire Scouts are being utilized in special operations support and homeland security services (Bone, 2009, p. 4). 8. Dragon Eye: it is the opposite of the Global Hawk in terms of range and size. Being a 5-pounder, with just a 45 inch wingspan UAV, the Dragon Eye can provide marines with over-the-hill surveillance of enemy troops, making it an ideal UAV for urban warfare, chemical, as well as biological-oriented missions. It is portable enough to fit in a backpack and can be launched by hand or with a bungee cord. This UAV can stay aloft for 1 hour, at a height of 300-500 feet, with speeds of up to 40 mph. Because of its small frame, its production cost which includes three planes, is only at $90,000 (Bone, 2003, p. 7). 9. Dragon Warrior: Resembling a small helicopter of about 105 inches long and flight range of 50 miles, and maximum duration of 3 hours, this will be a vertical take off and landing UAV designed for surveillance in urban areas. It will also be equipped with E-O/IR sensor camera and a laser target designator. 10. A-160 Hummingbird: The Hummingbird is also an unmanned helicopter designed to have longer flight duration and distance over the other models, with a range of 2,000 nm and a duration lasting for 48 hours, respectively. With its maximum flight altitude of 30,000 feet and a speed of 130-140kt, it will greatly assist in surveillance, targeting thru laser designation, communications relaying, weapons delivery to infantries, and special operations missions (Bone, 2003, p. 49). 11. Scan Eagle: Boeing’s UAV can be optionally launched from a ship, on land, or even from a submarine. The idea if to have a horde of 4-foot UAVs linked directly on a submarine for reconnaissance purposes. 12. Eagle Eye: This type of UAV takes off like a helicopter, and then flips its rotor blades to fly like an airplane. Its speed is up to 220 knots and has a distance of 300 miles. This type of UAV is suited for patrolling the coastline, locating ships in distress, and also has the capability to transmit videos to command centers. Production cost for the Eagle eye is at $3 million per plane (Bone, 2003, p. 50). 13. Micro Air Vehicle, MAV: unlike the UAVs, MAV is only inches in length, and production costs would be in the thousands and not in millions. As an example, the Organic Air Vehicle, or OAV, measures only 9 inches wide. It has a ducted fan design, and carries an E-O sensor, which comes in infrared or acoustic models. Because of its very small size, MAVs can be programmed for watch-and-stare missions on enemy troops while on air, and also while on land. These MAVs can autonomously lift off and land on itself. Modifications have also been done, resulting in the advent of UCAR, or Unmanned Combat Armed Rotorcraft. These will have the capability as a reconnaissance to ground troops, as well as offensive purposes. It will also be capable of system-linking with other manned and UAVs for performing synchronized attacks (Bone, 2003, p. 51). Human Factor in UAV Flights Since unmanned flights have slowly been gaining popularity in both military and commercial uses, perhaps it will be sooner than we expect for UAVs to replace manned flights permanently. It would be wise for us to give insights on issues concerning cognitive factors affecting the pilots, especially since accident occurrences in UAV flights have been proven to be over thirty times more common than in manned aircraft flights (McCarley & Wickens, 2005, p. 2). It is also possible for UAV pilots to be manning more than one aircraft simultaneously, entailing never-before-encountered workload pressures. Manual v Automated Flights 1. It has been widely accepted that the effect of automation has not resulted in the elimination of human workload but the introduction of new ones, forcing the pilots to develop new strategies (McCarley & Wickens, 2005, p. 4). The changing of strategies is often the result descriptive of an imperfect system, not of the computer software type, but of the factors that even a perfectly-running automation system would not be able to detect, such as the icing of an UAV wing. 2. The present UAV take off and landing automated procedures differ according to the model. Such that the Hunter and the Pioneer require an on-site external pilot; the Predator to be controlled on a separate aircraft within the Ground Control Site; while there are some cases, as in Global Hawk, where full automation is integrated. These differences seem to be significant, take off and landing errors make up for a majority of accidents attributed to human factors; Hunter with 67% and the Pioneer with 78%, both are externally controlled (McCarley & Wickens, 2005, p. ). 3. An external pilot of a UAV basically relies on computer imagery in controlling the aircraft. The visual quality of the imagery, however, has the possibility of being diminished due to factors affecting bandwidth, resulting in poor resolution or a delay in image uploading. Situations such as these may prejudice overall aircraft control and visibility of air traffic. This poses a clear danger in military missions, more so in the planned commercial implementation of autonomic control of commercial flights. 4. On way of solving the problem stated in #3 is by the use of enhanced reality, or synthetic vision (McCarley & Wickens, 2005, p. 7). In this system, images from the actual camera shots of a UAV will be converted to display landmarks on a given terrain, thus creating a virtual reality world that the external pilot can manipulate. The problem with this system is that pilot’s over reliance on synthetic imagery would lead to a possible neglect of some natural landmarks not visible in the imagery system. Thus, using this method would be beneficial for the UAV performance but comes with a potential risk. . One of the resulting effects of separating the pilot from the aircraft is that the pilot would be denied of his real-time sensory reactions otherwise available in a manned aircraft, and that he would have to rely on computer monitors provided for by the cameras onboard the UAV. Hence, we can conclude that the external pilot only functions in a relatively sensory isolation from t he UAV he is controlling. It would be of utmost importance for the developers to design an alarms system to keep the pilots abreast of the real-time environmental situations and probable system failures. . Since UAV pilots are not in danger of injury or death in the event of their aircraft crashing, this could, in theory, prove to be a big difference in the pilot’s risk-taking decisions, such as in going through a flight plan on a bad weather. Sensory isolation factor could be magnified during these situations (McCarley & Wickens, 2005, p. 10). 7. The accepted norm during long endurance UAV flights had been to switch control among different external pilots within a single flight. This process usually takes on three types: First is the transfer of UAV control from one Ground Control Station to another; second is through the transfer of control from one team of operators to another, within the same GCS; and last is through the transfer of control from one pilot to another within the same team. It has been documented that a significant number of UAV accidents happened during the transfer from one pilot to another, because the GCS taking over control of the UAV was not properly briefed beforehand (McCarley & Wickens, 2005, p. 0). 8. Instances of a total failure of the Ground Control Station-UAV communications link would prove to be disastrous. This scenario can be considered as a human factor because of the need for the Automated Traffic Center, or ATM, to be aware of the default programs of the UAV system in order to properly manage air traffic within their area. It would also be of the utmost importance for the external pilots themselves to be aware of the comm unications link failure as quickly as possible. 9. Researches on whether experienced manned pilots are better operators than novice manned pilots have ended in differing conclusions. Although generally, as the experiments revealed, experienced manned pilots reached the desired level of performance in landing and basic maneuvering skills faster than that of the novice’s. Other studies, however, based on the Army’s Job Assessment Software System, or JASS, revealed that piloting skills does not constitute a great deal in UAV operations, thus making the selection of top pilots as UAV operators insignificant (McCarley, & Wickens, 2005, p. 3). 10. Questions on medical qualifications of the UAV operator should also be brought into light. Since physical factors concerning high altitude temporary mental perception failure does not concern AUV pilots, still some type of medical fitness qualifications must be practiced. These must be able to determine if: the said qualifications should be more stringent or less for the UAV pilo ts; and, work duration limits should be established for long endurance missions. 11. Since the pressures and work load of a UAV pilot differs from that of a manned aircraft, and since formal training in flight schools are usually focused on instructing pilots for manned vehicles, which constitute less amount of time on simulations and more on the actual flight, the need arises for a training more attuned to giving more flight simulations to pilots of UAVs. This should be able to determine up to what extent trainee pilots should spend time on simulations in order to obtain a UAV certification. 12. Technological researches must be made to improve on the controls of the external pilot. At present, the controls of the UAV are similar to that of a radio-controlled hobbyist’s plane. This design poses a problem in the directional movement of the UAV with respect to the controller. As such, when the UAV and the pilot differ in position by 180 degrees, a rightward movement on the rudder will result in leftward movement of the UAV, and vice versa. Control rudders must be made to conform to the principle of human motion compatibility as to avoid further confusion for the pilot (McCarley & Wickens, 2005, p. 6).

Free Essays on Satire In Gullivers Travels

SATIRE OF GULLIVER’S TRAVELS Jonathan Swift’s satirical prose, Gulliver’s Travels, is the subject of a wide variety of literary critique and social interpretation. Although many readers, at first glance, take this tale to be simply a fantastic narrative of a common man and his encounters with unusual locations and people through several journeys, further inspection reveals Swift’s true purpose of creativitysatire. Using the contemporary style of the Travel Narrative, Swift is able to insert his own personal criticisms of modern life into the experience of Gulliver. Swift focuses entirely on satirizing humanity in Book IV of Gulliver’s Travels. Gulliver, representing a common man, encounters a wide variety of characters along his travels, each representing a subject Swift wishes to criticize. His satire ranges from relatively simple political criticism in his experiences in Book I and II to a socio-political criticism in Book III, to the social, philosophical criticism of man in Book IV. If Book IV is read literally, with no knowledge of satire, it appears to be another bizarre journey of Gulliver, no more unusual than his other travels. It is obvious, however, that Book IV criticizes the nature of man as a rational being. Of interest to the readers of today is Swift’s choice of creatures inhabiting this land; There is a barbaric, man-like creature dubbed the Yahoo and the civilized, good-natured horse-like creature, the Houyhnhnms. â€Å"Upon the whole, I never beheld in all my Travels so disagreeable an Animal, or one against which I naturally conceived so strong an Antipathy† (IV,193). His opinion of the Yahoos contrasts with his opinion of the Houyhnhnms. The Houyhnhnms think Gulliver is another Yahoo capable of outstanding intellect, but Gulliver is offended that they want to classify him as a Yahoo. â€Å"I expressed my Uneasiness at his giving me so often the Appellation of Y... Free Essays on Satire In Gulliver's Travels Free Essays on Satire In Gulliver's Travels Jonathan Swift’s standard satirical technique of irony is best exemplified with the use of vivid, nameless descriptions. In Gulliver’s Travels, Swift sets out describing something, neglecting to bestow a name on it, purposefully trying to create a vivid picture in your head. Once his description reaches its apex, and you truly believe you know what he is talking about, he names it something completely different. A perfect illustration of this is seen when the Yahoos are first being introduced in chapter 1. Swift writes, â€Å"Their heads and breasts were covered with a thick hair†¦ they had beards like goats, and a long ridge of hair down their backs, and the foreparts of their legs and feet†¦.† His vivid description continues on, further cementing a picture in your head of a wild, repugnant animal. In a pure ironic fashion, he waits until the middle of chapter 2 to let you know that this detestable animal most resembles a human being. Another depiction of this technique can be found in chapter 12, when he writes about inhabitants of a land being massacred by groups of men looking for their gold and jewels. You are led to believe he is talking about ruthless men, pirates for example, but you soon find out he is describing the divine act of colonialism. Swift’s use of irony is highly affective as a means to a satiric end, because of its shock effect. He takes mankind’s virtues, like the moral excellence we attach to our governmental practices, and turns them into vices. He causes you to stop, examine, and rethink all your old assumptions. For further debunking of man’s vices and follies, Swift turns to the fantastic Yahoos and Houyhnhnms. He use these two characters, each positioned completely on opposite ends of the rational spectrum, as a means for showing the fault of man when he is governed by either pure emotion or pure reason. The Yahoos, although human in form, are savage animals in character; they serve as a depictio... Free Essays on Satire In Gulliver's Travels SATIRE OF GULLIVER’S TRAVELS Jonathan Swift’s satirical prose, Gulliver’s Travels, is the subject of a wide variety of literary critique and social interpretation. Although many readers, at first glance, take this tale to be simply a fantastic narrative of a common man and his encounters with unusual locations and people through several journeys, further inspection reveals Swift’s true purpose of creativitysatire. Using the contemporary style of the Travel Narrative, Swift is able to insert his own personal criticisms of modern life into the experience of Gulliver. Swift focuses entirely on satirizing humanity in Book IV of Gulliver’s Travels. Gulliver, representing a common man, encounters a wide variety of characters along his travels, each representing a subject Swift wishes to criticize. His satire ranges from relatively simple political criticism in his experiences in Book I and II to a socio-political criticism in Book III, to the social, philosophical criticism of man in Book IV. If Book IV is read literally, with no knowledge of satire, it appears to be another bizarre journey of Gulliver, no more unusual than his other travels. It is obvious, however, that Book IV criticizes the nature of man as a rational being. Of interest to the readers of today is Swift’s choice of creatures inhabiting this land; There is a barbaric, man-like creature dubbed the Yahoo and the civilized, good-natured horse-like creature, the Houyhnhnms. â€Å"Upon the whole, I never beheld in all my Travels so disagreeable an Animal, or one against which I naturally conceived so strong an Antipathy† (IV,193). His opinion of the Yahoos contrasts with his opinion of the Houyhnhnms. The Houyhnhnms think Gulliver is another Yahoo capable of outstanding intellect, but Gulliver is offended that they want to classify him as a Yahoo. â€Å"I expressed my Uneasiness at his giving me so often the Appellation of Y...

The Difference Between a City and a Town

The Difference Between a City and a Town Do you live in a city or a town? Depending on where you live, the definition of these two terms may vary, as will the official designation that is given to a certain community. In general, though, cities are larger than towns. Whether any given town is officially designated with the term town, however, will vary based on the country and state it is located in. The Difference Between a City and a Town In the United States, an incorporated  city  is a legally defined government entity. It has powers delegated by the state and county and the local laws, regulations, and policies are created and approved by the voters of the city and their representatives. A city can provide local government services to its citizens. In many places in the U.S., a town, village, community, or neighborhood is simply an unincorporated community with no governmental powers. County governments typically provide services to these unincorporated communities.Some states do have official designations of towns that include limited powers. Generally, in the urban hierarchy, villages are smaller than towns and towns are smaller than cities, though this is not always the case.   How Urban Areas are Defined Throughout the World It is difficult to compare countries based on the percentage of urban population. Many countries have different definitions of the  population size necessary to make a community urban. For example, in Sweden and Denmark, a village of 200 residents is considered to be an urban population, but it takes 30,000 residents to make a city in Japan. Most other countries fall somewhere in between. Australian and Canadian cities have a minimum of 1,000 citizens.Israel and France have a minimum of 2,000 citizens.The United States and Mexico have a minimum of 2,500 citizens. Due to these differences, we have a problem with comparisons. Let us assume that in Japan and in Denmark there are 100 villages of 250 people each. In Denmark, all of these 25,000 people are counted as urban residents but in Japan, the residents of these 100 villages are all rural populations. Similarly, a single city with a population of 25,000 would be an urban area in Denmark but not in Japan. Japan is 78 percent  and Denmark is 85 percent  urbanized. Unless we are aware of what size of a population makes an area urban we cannot simply compare the two percentages and say Denmark is more urbanized than Japan. The following table includes the  minimum population that is considered urban in a sampling of countries throughout the world. It also lists the percent of the countrys residents which are urbanized. Not surprisingly, some countries with a higher minimum population have a lower percentage of ​urbanized population. In addition, the  urban population in almost every country is rising, some more significantly than others. This is a modern trend that has been noted over the last few decades and is most often attributed to  people moving to cities to pursue work. Country Min. Pop. 1997 Urban Pop. 2015 Urban Pop. Sweden 200 83% 86% Denmark 200 85% 88% South Africa 500 57% 65% Australia 1,000 85% 89% Canada 1,000 77% 82% Israel 2,000 90% 92% France 2,000 74% 80% United States 2,500 75% 82% Mexico 2,500 71% 79% Belgium 5,000 97% 98% Iran 5,000 58% 73% Nigeria 5,000 16% 48% Spain 10,000 64% 80% Turkey 10,000 63% 73% Japan 30,000 78% 93% Sources Hartshorn, Truman A.  Interpreting the City: An Urban Geography. 1992.Famighetti, Robert (ed.).  The World Almanac and Book of Facts. 1997.World Bank Group. Urban Population (% of total). 2016.

How to Study for the SSAT 8 Top Prep Tips

How to Study for the SSAT 8 Top Prep Tips SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips If you're interested in attending an independent school, you may have heard the termSSAT being batted around and may now be wondering how to studyfor the test. In this article, we'll briefly cover the basics of what the SSAT is and does,listthe best studymaterials to use, and offerkeySSAT prep strategies and tips. SSAT Prep Basics Before we diveinto how to study for the SSAT, let's make sure we're clear on some basic characteristics of thetest itself. What Is the SSAT? The SSAT, or Secondary School Admission Test, is a standardized test required by a number of independent schools worldwide as a part of any hopeful student's application. It's offered at three levels: Elementary, for students currently enrolled in Grades 3 or 4 Middle, for students currently enrolled in Grades 5 through 7 Upper, for students currently enrolled in Grades 8 through What Does the SSAT Test? The SSAT measures verbal, quantitative, and reading skills, all the while emphasizing critical thinking and problem solving. The quantitative sectiontests things likebasic operations, basic fractions, and ordering numbers (for the elementary-level students) and algebra, geometry, and data analysis (for the upper-level students). The verbal section consists of responding to synonym and analogy questions at an appropriatelevel for the student's age. The reading section is focused on answering comprehension and analysis questions related to short passages from a variety of genres. The test is almost entirely multiple-choice, withthe exception ofone15-25 minute free- response writing exercise. Younger students will be asked to write a short story, while older students will have the choice of constructing an essay if they prefer. The SSAT is designed to measures skills rather than achievement; in other words, it's not intended to rely on your mastery of specific material. This is supposed to help keep the test fair across all different backgrounds from which a student might originate. By its own admission, the test can't measure the other factorsthat make you a great student, like determination and creativity. That's why the test is only part of any application. It takes a golden combination of qualities to get admitted to a selective school. How Is the SSAT Scored? The SSAT is norm-referenced, meaning your final score is based on how well you do compared to other test takers. You will receive a scaled score and a percentile ranking. The scaled score's range will depend on the student's grade level: For Elementary, the range is 300-600 per section, or 1200-1800. For Middle, the range is 440-710 per section, or 1320-2130. For Upper, the range is 500-800 per section, or 1500-2400. The percentile ranking is always on a scale of 1-99, and it representsyour performanceas comparedto students of the same grade who tested on the SSAT for the first time within the past three years in the US or Canada. While the test is designed to be of "middle difficulty,"this is a very competitive group of students against which you're being scored- these are the select students applyingto the finest independent schools. BestSSAT StudyMaterial Before we get into how to study for the SSAT, let's talk about where to find theprep materials you need. The Official SSAT Guide The Official Guide is free to download for the Elementary Level and can easily be ordered for the Middle or Upper Level. The Official Guide is an essential component of preparing for the SSAT; it provides exposure to and an explanation of the format and content of the test. It answers a number of the essential questions you may have about the SSAT, including more in-depth information about its purpose and use, a detailed explanation of the scoring, and tips for how to prepare. It also includes official practice test problems, and, for Middle and Upper Level students, complete practice tests. SSAT Practice Tests Though these may be drawn from the Official Guide, I'm considering them a separate element here- same source, different resource. Use practice tests to familiarize yourself with the format, instructions, time constraints, and content. They're a great opportunity to practice as well as to ease the uncertainty you are likely to feel when facing a test of unknown characteristics. Practice tests also provide the perfect opportunity to assess your own strengths and weaknesses. From there, you can ask a teacher or parent for help on the specific areas where you struggle. Other SSAT PrepResources Once you've determined your weaknesses, you shouldscour the internet and the world of printfor extra study resourcesin those areas. Always check a source's legitimacy before you commit to using it; see who published it, what audience it's intended for, and, if possible, what kinds of results it's gotten. Also don't underestimate your teachers' valuable knowledge when it comes to finding workbooks and other practice problems; asking a teacher or librarian for help is a great place to start. Finally, you may want to consider findingsomeone to help you with your studying, whether that's a tutor or just a friend who can cheerlead you along the way. Again, don't be afraid to ask adults for help; teachers, librarians, and parents know a lot. As with most skills (like playing the violin), practice makes perfect. How to Study for the SSAT: 5 Steps Let's go though the prep process step-by-step. #1:Take an Official Practice Test You should start prepping at least three months before you plan to take the SSAT. The first step is to take a practice test and then analyze your performance: what are your strengths and weaknesses, and what growth will you need to see in order to reach your goal? Quantify where you are and where you want to be. Note your performance in each of the three scored content areas. #2: Study Regularly Having a regular study scheduleis vital to raisingyour score, since you need to put in real time and effort to improve Are you way behind your goal- say, more than 200 points? Think about scheduling at least an hour or two a weekfor Elementary students or up to three or fourhours a weekfor Upper students. Are youlooking to make a more moderate score increase of 100 - 200 points? You'll still want to study regularly, but can cut down to an hour or less per week for Elementary-level or roughly two hours per week for Upper-level. Are you right about where you need to be in your score? You don't need to put in quite the same level of sustained SSAT prep, but I still recommend taking one or two more practice teststo keep your scores stable (or even improve them!). #3: Focus on Your Weaknesses In your prep, focus in on the topicsthat were hardest for you, but don't forget to dust the ones you've mastered off pretty routinely, too. For the quantitative section, pay close attention in your math class; especially review/practice the topics that are slated to come up on the test, according to the Official Guide. For the verbal section, make a game of playing with synonyms and analogies in everyday life. Get your friends and family in on it, too, if you can! For the reading section, the best thing you can do is actively engage with reading on a daily basis. Draw from multiple genres, and force yourself to answer questions (your own or someone else's) about the text you've read. For all sections, complete practice problems as often as you can. Answering questions: one of the best ways to practice. #4: Take Another Practice Test- In Fact, Take a Few Take a practice test every three weeks or so- more often if you are uncomfortable with the test and want a greater improvement, less often if you feel at ease testing and are near your goal score. Use these practice tests as a time to increase your familiarity with the format and feel of the test. Also perform a check-in to see how your trouble areas are progressing. Ask where your focus needs to be at this point in time. #5: Slow Down About a Week Before the Test Give yourself plenty of time to relax; cut down on your study time, and get plenty of rest. Stop studying altogether a day or two before the test. You need to start storing up sleep for the big day! Everyone needs to relax sometimes! 3 More SSAT Prep Tips Here you'll find some additional helpful how-to's. Take the SSAT More Than Once If taking an actual SSAT as a sort of practice run is possible for you and your family, it's the best way to get a feel for the experience of the test. Figure out early on when you want to take this practice trial and when you want to take the real thing. Know the Format Inside and Out For example, Middle and Upper Level students will be up against a guessing penalty and will lose points for wrong answers, so they should only guess if they can eliminate choices. Elementary Level students do not have a guessing penalty and should fill in a bubble for every question. Also, Middle and Upper Level students will be asked to complete an unscored experimental section, which Elementary Level students will not. Don't Stress Too Much About the Test It's an important test and should be taken seriously, but excessive stress won't help anything. Keep the test in perspective; it won't make or break your life. When I was younger, I thought my gradesin elementary and middle school would help me get into the right program in high school, my grades there would get me into the right college, and attending the right college would set me up for a life of success. It doesn't work that way in real life. Yes, your grades and test scores look good on applications, but no school has the magical power to make you successful if you're admitted- or unsuccessful if you're not. Life is full of unexpected choices and alternateoptions, and colleges don't really care about the first report card you ever got. Remember: it's going to be OK. Conclusion Studying the SSAT is really a matter of knowing the format of the test and alternating between practice tests and good old-fashioned content review. It's a good idea to take at least a few practice tests before the real thing- it may even be bright to take an official SSAT for practice. As with any standardized test, remember that it represents just one part of you, and don't let it hang over you like a dark cloud. If you've been paying attention in school, you already know most of this material. Studying is still essential, but remember that the test has no power to define you. What's Next? Once you've got the SSAT out of the way, there may be other tests you want to study for. If you need to take the SAT, check out our guide to getting a perfect score on that particular exam. You may also appreciate our top five tips on how to study for the SAT. If you're not quite sure why the SAT might be so important, read about its importance in the process of college admissions. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Answer Questions Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Answer Questions - Assignment Example However, the word â€Å"theatre† also acquired different meaning that was also called non-Vitruvian. It appeared when it becomes fashionable to show performances outside. Thus, â€Å"theatre† also meant â€Å"performance†, not building, as performances did not need a construction to be showed in anymore (Anderson 7). The term â€Å"illusionistic perspective background† is used by Anderson, when he wants to explain to readers Sulpicio’s reference to â€Å"painted scene†. According to the author, this reference remains obscure as it was not believable that the theatre of this time used such background (Anderson 5). According, to Anderson, â€Å"theatres† were impermanent in the 16th century mainly because performances were rarely showed in special places for performances, which we call â€Å"theatres† now. Teatro Olimpico remained the only permanent place, but performances were showed rarely even there. If some constructions were created, they were dismantled soon. The word â€Å"theater† still was used as a synonym for the word â€Å"performance† and not â€Å"a building for performances†. Moreover, in the 16th century it was fashionable to invite actors to private houses to see the performance. People preferred performances to be showed in their houses and did not usually visit theaters (Anderson 16). Anderson does not state that â€Å"theatre buildings† were really important for art and its development. He writes about outstanding performances, which were held in 15th and 16th centuries and they did not need any special buildings, they could be held everywhere and this was a real art. I think that art in a free form is more pleasant and this is a great art. Actors worked without any special preparation, they were really gifted people who could start playing their performance at any moment without any special effects and costumes modern actors use. However, I agree with

Nursing leadership Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Nursing leadership - Essay Example The perception of nursing is fundamentally described as the execution of clinical practices for the motive of facilitating every individual to enhance well as recover from different difficulties relating to their health. The major aim of nursing is to promote health along with growth and also to prevent the individuals from any sort of disease or injury. However, the other purposes of nursing include assisting speedy recovery of the individuals or the patients, facilitating independence in terms of health, complying with the needs of the patients and most importantly enhancing the well being of the individuals (Royal College of Nursing, 2003). Apart from the purposes, the notion of nursing entails certain significant responsibilities. It can be stated in the similar context that the responsibilities include performing physical examinations of the individuals or the patients, delivering health education along with counseling and managing care in association with different healthcare p rofessionals (Meleis, 2011). In this discussion, the significance, effectiveness as well as the applicability of nursing leadership on patient and staff outcomes in contemporary clinical practice contexts will be taken into concern. Discussion The term ‘leadership’ is principally described as a comprehensive procedure of recognizing a specific aim as well as motivating other people to perform deliberate activities for the purpose of attaining the desired objectives. Moreover, the notion of leadership is also defined as a method in which an individual broadly influences a collection of people or individuals in order to accomplish the common objectives (Northouse, 2009). The aspect of nursing leadership is defined as those activities which are usually performed by a nurse practitioner for enhancing the health as well as the safety of the individuals or the patients. The different leadership capabilities of a nursing leader comprise frequently consulting with the patients about their health, appropriately administering their treatments, making valuable decisions and coping up with the problems which arises within the team members or multidisciplinary colleagues. In relation to the aspect of leadership, it has been apparently observed that the various qualities of an effectual nursing leader encompass courage, integrity, initiative and most significantly possessing the capability to manage stress. Additionally, the other characteristics of a nursing leader are making effective communication with the team members or the multidisciplinary colleagues, incorporating new as well as creating innovative ideas, making deliberate work planning and encouraging staff participation within the background of healthcare settings (Frankel, 2008). The term ‘applicability’ is generally described as relevant or appropriate which may be applied in order to attain any significant response. Furthermore, the term can also be defined as a premeditated activity o f applying any sort of sensible applications for a particular purpose. The application of different methods as well as logical planning schemes can ultimately support the organizations along with their leaders to attain the preferred objectives successfully. The objectives may include attaining considerable market share, enhancing the profitability and accomplishing a significant competitive position over the chief market contenders (Medina, 2002). Conversely, the term ‘effectiveness’ is primarily described as the capability of accomplishing a desired result by the implementation of various policies or procedures. The term also depicts the extent towards which the goals are attained and the degree towards which the targeted difficulties are solved (Waldt, 2004). The significance, applicability as well as the effectiveness of nursing leadership on patient and staff outcomes in contemporary clinical practice context relates to the important fact that a ‘clinical nur se leader’ plays an imperative part in enhancing the hea

Summerize articles Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Summerize articles - Article Example This book narrates the success story of a group of English craftsmen who took to labor with the aid of some capitalists which can be used as a guide for others. Though there was acute commercial depression, the Guild of Craftsmen successfully functioned when they worked in group minimizing the use of machines. 2. Ceastlake It is ironic to see how awkward the beauty concept of many people is as the design of household items is concerned. Many of the objects in our everyday use are poorly designed, which, often, are unsuitable to practical use and pathetic in artistry. Far from being progressive, we have gone backward in the quality of manufacture and design. Fields like metal-work, joinery have all ruined in artistic quality due to the eagerness to reduce labor and increase price but the general public is still unaware of it. It is possible to bring the universally accepted principles of good design into practice. The design of the item should indicate the purpose, and the character o f ornament should depend on the nature of material and the use of the article. In industrial art, beauty and use are closely associated though it is not so for partially educated ones. In fact, real art sticks to the simplest and most practical shapes. 3.