Saturday, September 7, 2019
Christianity and Islam Essay Example for Free
Christianity and Islam Essay A few months ago, when a Vatican official announced that Catholicism was surpassed by Islam as the world’s largest faith, many news agencies around the world carried what seemed to have been a largely unnoticed issue for this present generation – religion. At least for some time, renewed debates about whether or not one should indeed consider Islam as a religion that commands world’s largest followers surfaced one after another. The issue many people think should not be dismissed is the fact that Christianity – a religion which combines an array of all its offshoots namely Roman Catholicism, Orthodox, Protestantism, Anglicanism, Evangelicals, among others – still has the largest adherents compared to any other religion, including Islam. Even if Christianity may be broken down into some larger or other smaller denominations, many people subscribe to idea that since all Christians root their belief in Christ, one must take them as belonging to a singular religion, the largest in the world to be exact. To consider Christianity as a single religion involves rounds of new separate debates. Surely, when the differences between the mainstream Christian blocks and the thousand of other minor denominations are brought into the fore, their respective beliefs will manifest diversity, resemblance, opposition, and even contradiction. Tedious as this process may appear, one may not yet consider the fact that even in the Islam religion itself there are further classifications of membership that must be taken into careful account. Again, it is legitimate to inquire whether it is proper to take Islam as a unitary religion, or they too must be broken down into their finer types. As one may correctly observe, inner divisions within the world’s largest religions – Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Hinduism, etc. – appear to be a fundamentally given fact. One can perhaps inquire whether it is possible to identify a major religion with millions, if not a billion of adherents, which does not have any, or have not suffered from any inner rift at any given point of its history. It may be interesting to ask therefore, what accounts for the eventual internal fall out of world religions in history? Better yet, how must we attempt to understand what happens in a religion that has been divided into smaller aggregate types in the course of history? II. Rationale and Scope This brief study presents a case for divisions transpiring within world religions. But since the scope of studying the issue is broad (considering that there are many major world religions to cite), this research shall be restricted at tackling Christianity and Islam as chosen types. Specifically, the study shall describe the events that transpired during the Catholic-Protestant divide of the mid 1500’s for Christianity, and the Shiite-Sunni divide for Islam. To be sure, there are other identifiable divisions which can be noted in the history of Christianity. While there are small schisms involving â€Å"heretics†who refuse to accept fundamental Christian teachings, Christianity is said to have been divided into two major blocks during the 11th century. It produced the dichotomization between the Roman Catholics and the Eastern Orthodox, which until the present still exists. For the purposes of limiting this study, the Christian division which shall be discussed in this study shall dwell on the Luther-led Reformation of the 1500’s. Meanwhile, it is also insightful to note even in the Islam religion, there have been various types of smaller divisions and schisms. For the purposes of this study too, the rift between the Shiites and the Sunnis that was created in the early years of Islam religion shall be the one in focus. A short analysis and interpretation of the sample religions used shall comprise the conclusion of this study. III. Discussion Proper a. Nature of Religion Before relating the events defining the divisions that were experienced both by Christianity and Islam, it will be helpful to cite some theories to help explain the dynamics of religion. This is important since it shall provide a working perspective which is to be used later on in the analysis. Religion is a phenomenon which may be understood in many ways. Basically speaking, it refers to the common innate feeling or â€Å"belief in a Supreme Being†(McCutcheon, 2007, p. 22). Religion obviously stems from a belief that there is a higher being that must be worshiped or adored. But religion does not pertain to kind of personal belief alone. It also describes how a believer finds the need to belong to a community which shares the same belief, and thus obey a given set of rules within it. Thus, another definition for religion may also be expressed as a â€Å"unified system of belief and practices relative to sacred things†which â€Å"unites (believers) into one single moral community†(McCutcheon, 2007, p. 22). Combing both definitions enable one to fully appreciate the fact that religion pertains to both a personal ascent to God, and a commitment to a community, a set of rules and a specific set rituals. When seen under the lenses of scientific inquiry (e. g. anthropology, sociology, philosophy, etc. ) religion reveals patterns and dynamism consistent with human belief system, knowledge, interest and relationships. This means that religion is molded into the belief system of the believers. For instance, if Christians hold that Christ in his lifetime was compassionate to the poor, it follows that they too, since they follow Christ, must do something good for their less fortunate brethren. Or if Moslems take Mohammad as their example, and Mohammad was a deeply spiritual man, they too must not take spirituality lightly in their lives. Religious mindset is committed to certain courses of action (Slater, 1978, p. 6); and these actions are meaningful only because believers draw their identities from a person or a belief system they embrace – be it the Lordship of Christ, or the greatness of the Prophet Muhammad (Slater, 1978, p. 82). This is one of the primary reasons why religions possess their â€Å"continuing identities†(Slater, 1978, p. 82). So long as a group of Christians identify themselves to the teachings of their religion, say Catholic Church, they will remain to be Catholics. As indeed, so long as a group of Moslems identify themselves to the teachings of their religion, say Shiite group, they will remain to be identified with it. What explains the shift in a belief system is when one cannot anymore identify either with a teaching, or specific religious structures. It is a general rule that key to a religion’s perpetuity is establishing an identity. When people start to feel alienated with what they used to hold or believe it, it can explain why a group of believers create their own groups to accommodate their otherwise alienated belief system. To help establish the point, it may be good to lay down two glaring examples. b. The Shiite-Sunnis Divide Islam was born at least five hundred years after Christianity was already an institutionalized religion. But what started out only as a small community following Muhammad, Islam grew in exponential proportion in just a short span of time. Within the rapid growth came bitter disputes and eventual breakaways. Although Islam is a religion which does not readily recognize that there are divisions within them, scholars are almost unanimous in agreeing that some factions already broke from within the Moslem community dating back to the days when the religion itself was merely beginning to be established. In a sense, Islam is a religion broken down into at least two major divisions even before it got to be formally established as a religious phenomenon. It all started when a certain man named Muhammad, who by the way was born in 570 to a very poor family, begun to attract followers after experiencing visions and revelations (Renard, 1998, p. 7). His reputation spread in neighboring places, and soon found himself at odds with ruling empires for the large number of followers he had gathered. After this increasingly expanding community finally settled in Mecca in 630, Muhammad would die two years after (Renard, 1998, p. 7). His death would then see his community figure in a prolonged tug-of-war for rightful succession, and would officially begin the drift within the newly established religious community. One group claimed that Muhammad chose his rightful successor in the person of his son named Ali before he died. The other group contested the claim and said, no instructions were made by the Prophet whatsoever. Instead, they held that it was appropriate for to appoint leaders themselves, and eventually chose Abu Bakr, Muhammad’s father-in-law, as the first of the four caliphs (meaning head), to rule the Islam community. Those who embraced the leadership of Ali were eventually known as the Shiites, while the followers who believed Abu Bakr’s caliphate eventually came to be known as Sunnis. As such, the neat separation within the just-emerging Islamic religion has been established. Since it exists up until today, it can be described as the â€Å"largest institutional division within the Muslim community†so far (Renard, 1998, p. 13; Ayoub, 2004, 72). c. The Catholic-Protestant Divide The era that colored the Catholic-Protestant divide was a Church marred with controversies, silent disenchantment and an ever growing discontent among Christian faithful. As history would show, it was through and because of Martin Luther – and his whole ebb generating protests against the Church – that the radical break from Catholicism was to be established. But hundreds of years before the supposed break, there had already been numerous events that point to the restlessness within the membership of the Church which it tried to quell. What were the controversies about? As early as the 1300’s, roughly two hundred years before Luther was born, an ordained priest by the name of John Wycliffe started to publish series of attacks against some of the major teachings and traditions of the Church. In 1372, he was summoned and reprimanded by Church authorities for his teachings that dwelled on the following: his denial of the doctrine of transubstantiation (a belief that the bread and wine used in celebrating the Eucharist is transformed into the real body and blood of Christ), attacks on the authority of the Pope as the head of the Church, corrupt practices within the Church, and emphasis on preaching and the use of Scriptures for teaching the doctrines of the Church (Cook, 2008, p. 95). Wycliffe probably represented the first courageous voices which tried to confront what’s wrong with the Church. In fact, he did try to raise legitimate concerns about both the divisive doctrines and lamentable discipline which the Church at that time practiced. Years after, Luther would pick up from where his predecessors had left out. In 1517, he released his Ninety-Five Theses to the public – a collection of ninety-five protests against many Church teachings – both doctrinal and moral – and Church practices, such as indulgences (spiritual merits obtained in return for monetary donations), celibacy (the promise for priests not to marry), Eucharist, among others (Cook, 2008, p. 100). Since the general religious atmosphere at that time was already ripe for reforms, his ninety-five theses were easily duplicated and spread throughout the German empire – a testament, as it were, to a huge popular support he enjoyed for the risks he took. Luther’s break from the Church was formally established when he burned the Papal bull Exsurge Domine (a decree which threatened him of excommunication if he did not recant his protests) in front of many people in a public square (Cook, 2008, 101). After which, he did subsequently ask the authorities of the German kingdom to support his cause for Church reform. Luther is remembered as a man who broke the Catholic Church apart. True enough, even before he died, he already saw the far reaching effects of his call for reforms he perhaps initially did not intended to jumpstart. Thanks to Luther, Christianity would never be the same again. The â€Å"Germany after (the) Reformation†movement in the mid 1500’s became a home to a new breed of Christians who came to be branded as Lutherans, Calvinist, Reformers, or even Protestants (Pennock, 2007, p. 168). In principle, Luther earned the reputation of being an agent of division within the Christian religion. IV. Conclusion To be sure, Christianity and Islam are not the only major religions in the world which had suffered a kind of break-up from within. Religious divisions are commonplace, and that variations sprouting from within large communities may be brought about by various factors. When divisions occur, one normally observes that differences pertaining to a host of issues including (but not limited to) doctrines, practices, or even recognized leadership become patent. As earlier mentioned, the dynamics of religion may help explain why a feeling of alienation (or a loss of identity) can push a believer or a group to break-away from mainstream religion to form their own set of practices and norms independently. Christianity and Islam were taken as exemplifications. In the points that were developed, it was seen that they share a history with lots of bitter disputes, which in turn led to an eventual division. But both religions suffered from internal rifts quite differently as well. Islams division was more political in nature, as two major factions with their respective claims to rightful succession to their now-dead Prophet-leader tore the emerging community apart thus, the Sunnis and the Shiites. Christianity on the other hand, after experiencing many breakaway groups in the course of history, had to suffer yet another major blow from internal disputes led by Martin Luther in the 1500s on account of doctrine and practices. What followed was a Christian religion torn once again, which ushered the creation of a big faction named Protestants. Religious divisions can be put under rigorous inquiry. There are viewpoints that consider these divisions as something that separate one group after another, while there are those who propose to see the same divisions as something that merely distinguish (but not separate). While the two viewpoints may be valid in their respective senses, this study places much interest not on their â€Å"distinguishability†or â€Å"separability†, but on the fact that, truly, religious divisions from within happen. References Ayoub, M. (2004). Islam. Faith and History. Oxford: Oneworld. Cook, C.. (2008) The Routledge Companion to Christian History. New York: Routledge. McCutcheon, R. (2007). Studying Religion. An Introduction. London: Equinox. Pennock, M. (2007) This is Our Church. A History of Catholicism. Notre Dame, Indiana: Ave Maria Press. Renard, J. (1998)101 Questions and Answers on Islam. New York: Paulist Press. Slater, P. (1978). The Dynamics of Religion. Meaning and Change in Religious Traditions. San Francisco: Harper and Row. (Also consulted) http://ca. news. yahoo. com/s/capress/080330/world/vatican_muslims
Friday, September 6, 2019
The United Nations And Human Rights Essay Example for Free
The United Nations And Human Rights Essay The developments that immediately preceded the Second World War in field of state-relations irreversibly changed the landscape of the international communities. The biggest development, if not the most significant, was the establishment of the United Nations. This move to theoretically unite a war-ravaged world was ambitious and prone to many pitfalls.            Among the immediate developments that were ushered in by the creation of this supranational institution was the Human Rights Machinery. This significant progress came â€Å"[a]fter centuries of inadequate, piecemeal efforts to protect citizens from abuse by their own governments, in 1946 the international community founded a global human rights institution.  The United Nations Commission on Human Rights became the first international body empowered to promote all the human rights of all the world’s peoples. The founders assumed that improved respect for human rights would help individuals and would also serve the United Nations’ primary peacekeeping gal by eliminating repressive practices which provoked war.†[1] The importance and legitimacy of the respect for Human Rights and the international promotion of it among the different nations of the world was further â€Å"highlighted in Chapter IX of the Charter dealing with international economic and social cooperation in terms of a pledge or commitment of all Member states.†[2]            Like with many other issues in the political arena, there is a wide schism between the word and the act. â€Å"The contributions of the UN must neither be understated nor overstated. The UN has been an intellectual pioneer in the issues of economic and social development, much more than is often recognized. At the same time, there have often been omissions and distortions in its work.†[3] While the ideals proclaimed by the United Nations Commission on Human Rights, through the different Conventions and texts are many, there is a vocal number of people that believe that the United Nations, together with the mentioned Commission is all rhetoric. In this, there is a â€Å"[s]trong tendency†¦to put blame for this unsatisfactory state of affairs on the United Nations and it is true that the Organization is in many respects inapt and ineffective in converting the theory of its own words into actual practice. However, those circles who for good reasons criticize the United Nations would be well advised to do some more soul-searching as to their own direct or indirect share of complicity in bringing about and maintaining structures of injustice.†[4]            The human rights machinery refers to the different organs and procedures dealing directly with human rights in the United Nations system which includes: Intergovernmental organs established on the basis of the Charter of the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, and the Commission on Human Rights. The commission on the Status of Women and the Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice also address human rights issues within their respective mandates; Bodies established by human rights treaties; Reporting, communications, and investigating procedures established by policy-making organs and treaty based bodies; the parts of the United Nations Secretariat responsible for human rights activities, especially the United Nation High Commissioner for Human Rights. The Division for the Advancement of Women and the centre for International Crime Prevention have also human rights responsibilities. The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights and the Decision for the Advancement of Women adopt joint work plans.[5]       â€Å"The Charter of the United Nations, with respect to Human Rights bridged the gap between human rightly established a close link between human rights and other world-wide concerns, viz. the maintenance of peace and the promotion of economic and social development. (†¦) The United Nations played a dynamic role in strongly supporting the quest for independence of colonial countries and peoples was instrumental in terminating colonial domination and combating racial discrimination. In no other area did the United National proclaim and defend human rights principles with so much vigour as in the fields of decolonization and racial discrimination.†[6]            There is said to be three stages of differently focused activities that capture the essence of the Commission’s work in the domain of Human Rights: (1) Standard-Setting (2) Promotion (3) Protection. These three stages are essential in analyzing the work, whether in a positive or negative light, of the Commission.            The Standard-setting stage started the inception of the body of the United Nations itself and lasted a decade after (1945-1955). The most significant output of this stage, and perhaps one of the most significant in human history, was the articulation of the International Bill of Rights; and for this one must give credit to the Commission who was entrusted with this enormous task. During the first decade, the Commission â€Å"spent most of its time on the elaboration of the draft international covenants and concluded its drafting work with respect to those instruments in the mid-fifties.†[7]            â€Å"Despite adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, concern with and promotion of human rights as such often played little part in the UN’s early work on economic and social development. The fulfilment of many economic and social rights was certainly implicit in UN concerns and actions for economic and social advance, but references to rights in this work were few and far between.  Moreover, political and civil and cultural rights mostly got forgotten or ignored in economic writing on development and were treated more as a matter of political and ideological debate in the U.N. Indeed, in development discussions, the belief became popular that authoritarian regimes had some advantage and even some justification because of their ability to take the tough decisions requiredfor example, to raise the rate of savings in poor countries. It was argued that more democratic leaders would find it difficult to take these hard decisions.†[8]            Although the drafting of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was and is considered a huge achievement for the international community, the acceptance was not as ready, much like all the new ideas that come into the field, like gender mainstreaming. When a popular support for the ideas embodied in the Declaration did not appear on the horizons, the United Nations began a widespread promotional campaign, the second stage (19955-1965). â€Å"It was assumed that studies, advice and measures in the field of education and information would in the long run provide a more fruitful basis for enhancing the cause of human rights that the treaty-making process which was undertaken with the elaboration of the International Covenants.†[9]           However, this particular stage did not receive resounding success either. The interest that was sparked was not proportionate to the resources of time, energy and money expended to undertake the promotional activities. â€Å"[T]hey failed to grasp the interest and the imagination of the United Nations membership and of the public at large. Moreover, they were too far removed from the main political currents in the World Organization. The human rights program was functioning in isolation and it seemed to lack the political relevance and for that matter the impetus which is needed for dynamic evolution.†[10]            Apparently, the fact that â€Å"[i]t is one thing to draw up international standards, it is quite another thing to have those standards implemented†[11] began to painfully dawn on the Commission. It must be said, however, that this unforeseen lack of support was entirely due to the incompetence of the United Nations in general and the Commission, in particular. External factors of the current times have to be taken into consideration as well. Despite the end of the war, there was still prevalent â€Å"[d]istrust and tensions between nations and peoples, extreme disparities in economic and social conditions between and within nations, religious and ideological antagonism, persistent patterns of racial discrimination and class domination and numerous other factors, including selfishness of individual human beings, affect the realization of human rights with the various societies. It should also be taken into account that any approach from the viewpoint of violations of human rights is, in the context of inter-State cooperation, a most precarious and delicate undertaking inasmuch as it focuses mostly on weaknesses and failures.†[12]            It is undeniable, looking at the United Nations history, that the machinery met great difficulties in the human rights ideals across the world and to effectively integrate it into existing government practices. Due to the few successes of the first two stages, the stage of protection started off with a bumpy ride and is subject to much criticism, which will discussed in the later paragraphs.            Despite the shaky two decades, it is undeniable that â€Å"the Commission has contributed to the inadequate but nevertheless incremental growth of supranational authority capable of scrutinizing practices that had previously been exclusively within governments’ sovereign jurisdiction.†[13] The third stage, protection, came right after the standards were set and the same were promoted to the individuals and national governments. The protection stage is actually the collection of events, still undergoing now, that enforces the standards by â€Å"responding to specific complaints against over seventy governments. The process has increased the Commission’s visibility ad dramatically transformed its operation while exacerbating fundamental differences over whether political or economic, individual or collective rights deserve priority.†[14]            To guide the protection of the world’s population, the Commission refers to now only their shining accomplishment that was the Universal Declaration of Human Rights but other treaties such as the International Convention on the Elimination of All forms of Racial Discrimination (1966), the Convention of the Rights of the Child (1989) and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women. â€Å"There can be little doubt that the three greatest intellectual contributions of the United Nations have been human rights on a global scale†¦Ã¢â‚¬ [15]            Despite the pioneering efforts of the Commission, those that have resulted in both failure and success, a large number of people are highly critical of the United Nations, in general and the Commission, in particular, citing inefficiency, redundancy and an overly-bureaucratic structure as primary reasons. â€Å"American critics have made the sharpest attacks, venting their greatest anger prior to 1980 and since then against the UN in general and the Assembly in particular. The Commissions harshest critic claims that unfair procedures have been manipulated to subvert democratic governments and fundamental rights. The Commission’s defenders lament it limited impact on government practice and propose a variety of structural reforms.†[16]            One of the biggest concerns aired by the Eastern bloc is the supposed prevalence of Western values embodied in the different Declaration and Treaties. â€Å"Judging by the time spent in drafting and the norms adopted, the Commission appears to have given higher priority to Western sponsored political and civil than to Third World initiated economic and social standards.†[17] Economic concerns were definitely more pressing in the third-world countries where starvation trumped political freedom any day. Although in its defense, the Declaration did have economic rights included in the text. However, many complain that while that is true,†[t]he Universal Declaration and the two covenants give nearly consideration to economic rights, but create more effective enforcement procedures for civil liberties. The conventions on race discrimination and apartheid affirm the rights of groups as well as individuals but give no special priority to economic concerns. (†¦) The consensus decision-making procedure delayed and weakened the 1986 declaration on development. If any standard setting priority exists, the Commission has given the greatest attention to individual civil and political rights. Despite the strident rhetoric about balancing economic and political rights, the gross violations identified have involved considerably more political than economic injustice. (†¦) Complaints about forced labour, particularly involving children, have not prompted a response unless the violation involved mass killing or another top priority.†[18]            Assuming but not conceding that this prioritization were true, it must be said that such would be essential in the smooth running of an organization in order not to spread oneself too thin. This is particularly true for the United Nations because a â€Å"society must establish value priorities about which rights to protect by law and which violations to punish most severely. The international community is even more ideologically divided than its constituent members, therefore attempts to enforce universal human rights exacerbate fundamental political differences.†[19]            Among the popular criticisms of the United Nations Human Rights machinery, the most troubling would perhaps have to be the accusations of the employing double standards; standards that heavily favor Western aggression. These complaints found legitimacy in the now-infamous UN inaction during the Rwandan genocide. Furthermore, the deafening silence on the part of the UN during the American military operations against Afghanistan and Iraq hit the UN credibility hard and many more joined the others in crying foul. â€Å"Some critics have concluded that politically motivated double standards, selective enforcement and disparate treatment totally discredit the Commission’s enforcement program. When the Commission acts selectively, its exceptionally rare actions appear arbitrary and capricious. While Commission supporters also complain that too many serious violation escape scrutiny, they favor imperfect enforcement to none at all.†[20]            In conclusion, the Commission was â€Å"ill-equipped to cope with the underlying military and economic causes of the worst human rights violations. At best its measures temper and moderate the most extreme offenses. Once the killing has begun, human rights remedies, like United Nations relief for refugees, merely alleviates symptoms.†[21]            With that said, a new chapter of Human Rights’ protection through the United Nations system was ushered with the extinction of the Commission of the Human Rights in 2006. Its successor is dubbed the Human Rights Council. This brings to the playing field a shift in the field of Human Rights and is significant in several aspects. First, it addresses the issue of a much-needed ‘face-lift’ for the image of the United Nations main machine of human rights. The former Commission had its share of bad publicity and the creation of the Human Rights Council, even if will heavily base its action on those of its predecessors, makes the evolution in thinking and practice much more understandable by the general public.            Moreover, the Council ushers in a new era in which the Commission would have been hard-pressed to fit in. This misfit can perhaps be attributed to the fact that the former Commission was created during a different international field, at a time when war was still a fresh memory. In so many ways, the global community has progressed far beyond the nature of Post-World War II. Therefore, this new change will hopefully reflect mandates that would be more faithful and effective in these current times.            A cursory look at the working groups under the Human Rights Council shows that not all was changed, however, and rightly so. The Council is still carrying out the standard-setting stage, which the Commission excelled at. Under a standard-setting goal, the Council is currently looking into the expansion of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in order to more accurately portray the Human Rights’ needs of these rapidly changing times. In addition to this potential expansion, there is also a working group under the auspices of the Human Rights Council that is currently drafting a legally binding instrument for the protection of all persons from enforced disappearances. This latter on is merely a continuation of the Commission’s work.            The other working groups of the Human Rights Council do show that they are treading into new territory, which the Commission was criticized for not doing enough. Under the working groups for special procedures, there are experts on People of African Descent, Arbitrary Detention and Mercenaries.            There is incredible potential for the Council to do great work in the field of human rights and it is not weighed down by decades of bad publicity. Although it is too early in the game to call the outcome, this significant change in the United Nations framework will only be effective if the new Council learns from its predecessor’s mistakes in enforcement. Although the textual and intellectual contribution of the Commission cannot be disputed, these contemporary times need more than non-binding conventions that do not seem to scare those militant with complete disregard for the sanctity and dignity of human life.            Being a watchdog of human rights in the world cannot be constrained to formulating conventions and treaties. This was where the Commission excelled at and the Council should build on them but concentrate on actual groundwork where they are needed, on the ground and not from some lofty and comfortable climate controlled environment in New York. In many ways, this shows that the United Nations System has evolved with the times and the old complaints with the old machinery will slowly be forgotten. This is a perfect time for any enormous changes within the United Nations system in that there is an actual change of face, literally, with the new Secretary-General; therefore any new victories will be counted as part of the new Council, even if it were heavily rooted in the Commission’s work. [1] Tolley, H., (1987). The UN Commission on Human Rights. London: Westview Press. p.xiii [2] Cassese, A. ed. (1979) UN Law: Fundamental Rights. van Boven, T., United Nations and Human Rights: A critical Appraisal. p.119 [3] Jolly, R. et.al. (2004) UN Contributions to Development Thinking and Practice. Indiana: United Nations Intellectual History Project Series. p.276 [4] Cassese, A. ed. (1979) UN Law: Fundamental Rights. van Boven, T., United Nations and Human Rights: A critical Appraisal. p.120 [5] Symonides, J., (2003) Human Rights: International Protection, Monitoring, Enforcement. UNESCO Publishing. p.5 [6] Cassese, A. ed. (1979) UN Law: Fundamental Rights. van Boven, T., United Nations and Human Rights: A critical Appraisal. p.120 [7] Cassese, A. ed. (1979) UN Law: Fundamental Rights. van Boven, T., United Nations and Human Rights: A critical Appraisal. p.121 [8] Jolly, R. et.al. (2004) UN Contributions to Development Thinking and Practice. Indiana: United Nations Intellectual History Project Series. p.8 [9] Cassese, A. ed. (1979) UN Law: Fundamental Rights. van Boven, T., United Nations and Human Rights: A critical Appraisal. p.122 [10] Cassese, A. ed. (1979) UN Law: Fundamental Rights. van Boven, T., United Nations and Human Rights: A critical Appraisal. p.122 [11] Cassese, A. ed. (1979) UN Law: Fundamental Rights. van Boven, T., United Nations and Human Rights: A critical Appraisal. p.125 [12] Cassese, A. ed. (1979) UN Law: Fundamental Rights. van Boven, T., United Nations and Human Rights: A critical Appraisal. p.125 [13] Tolley, H., (1987). The UN Commission on Human Rights. London: Westview Press. p.xiii [14] Tolley, H., (1987). The UN Commission on Human Rights. London: Westview Press. p.xiii [15] Jolly, R. et.al. (2004) UN Contributions to Development Thinking and Practice. Indiana: United Nations Intellectual History Project Series. p.276 [16] Tolley, H., (1987). The UN Commission on Human Rights. London: Westview Press. p.187 [17] Tolley, H., (1987). The UN Commission on Human Rights. London: Westview Press. p.193 [18] Tolley, H., (1987). The UN Commission on Human Rights. London: Westview Press. p.193 [19] Tolley, H., (1987). The UN Commission on Human Rights. London: Westview Press. p.194 [20] Tolley, H., (1987). The UN Commission on Human Rights. London: Westview Press. p.203 [21] Tolley, H., (1987). The UN Commission on Human Rights. London: Westview Press. p.220
Thursday, September 5, 2019
Explain Formally The Environmental Kuznets Curve Hypothesis Economics Essay
Explain Formally The Environmental Kuznets Curve Hypothesis Economics Essay Clearly as countries strive for increased growth they attempt to produce greater output and logic dictates that with greater output, ceteris paribus, there must be greater input and thus a depletion of resources from our environment. Simultaneously greater output leads to greater levels of emissions and waste, thus the carrying capacity of the biosphere will be exceeded sooner. Simon Kuznetss Environmental Kuznets Curve hypothesis states that economic inequality initially increases, reaches a critical threshold, and then decreases as the country develops (Economic Growth and Income Inequality, 1955). The hypothesis is shown by Figure 1 below. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/Kuznets_curve.png Figure It is important to realise the relationship of the EKC shows a correlation between environmental equality and income, not causation. This simply means that a trend has been realised between income and economic inequality which states that initially as income rises so does inequality, however at a certain threshold inequality begins to diminish, and the reason for this change is not immediately apparent. The concept that environmental equality is influenced by economic growth originated from earlier economic theory, as in many 1970s theoretical literature on pollution and growth, optimal pollution control models have inverted U curves of pollution implicitly embedded in them (Selden, 1994). There are two main economic explanations for the Kuznets Curve hypothesis. Firstly the environment can be viewed as a luxury good. This means that although initially individuals are not willing to trade consumption for environmental investment, at a certain level of income individuals begin to increase their expenditure on the environment to enjoy its benefits. It can therefore be argued that economic development is a means to environmental improvement and thus whilst initially the environment will suffer from growth, it will benefit from the economic prosperity in the long run. Secondly as countries experience growth and income increases there are recognised historical structural development stages to the countrys economy much like, as Roslow noted, the moving from traditional to industrial economies and then to a mature mass consumption economy (The Stages of Economic Growth, 1960). For example, in a Less Developed Country (LDC), a structural transformation from primitive agriculture, through manufacturing and into services would initially utilise the environment efficiently through agricultural trade, with greater income this might transform into manufacturing which is highly dependent on environmental resources and also carries large negative externalities such as pollution. However once again, with further growth industry and trade will move towards services which have the least impact on the environment. The study by Syrquin in 1989 econometrically ties structural changes to economic growth and is often used to discuss the EKC hypothesis (Grossman, et al., 1995). It is obvious to conclude that if these developmental stages occur and the transitions between the stages correlate with specific per capita income levels, then a relationship where pollution levels initially rise before subsequently falling, as average incomes increase. Unrah and Moomaw argue that we cannot be sure whether the stages of economic growth are a deterministic process that all countries must pass through, or simply a description of the development history of a specific group of countries during the 19th and 20th centuries that may never again take place (An alternative analysis of apparent EKC-type transitions, 1998). We can look at the turning point in the EKC from increasing environmental inequality to diminishing environmental inequality as a change of individual interest from self-interest to social interest. However Arrow (2000) points out that the EKC provides very little information about the mechanisms by which economic growth affects the environment. For example, as income increases industry developments and innovations may have reduced negative externalities on the environment. Also with greater national income and wealth there is greater demand on the authorities for environmental regulations. There have been several empirical and analytical studies of the EKC hypothesis and whilst some support the conclusions of Kuznets others counter his findings. There is however, little debate that many pollution emissions in the developed countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) have stabilised or indeed declined over recent years whilst these same countries per capital incomes have simultaneously increased (An alternative analysis of apparent EKC-type transitions, 1998). Unrah and Moomaw demonstrate in their 1998 empirical study of France GDP growth against CO2 levels an inverted U-shaped curve is produced which supports Kuznets hypothesis (An alternative analysis of apparent EKC-type transitions, 1998). Image Figure France CO2 vs GDP 1950-1992 Grossman and Krueger in 1994 produced a study with an N-shaped curve where after a high enough threshold there were increases in environmental degradation. Grossman also in 1994 found that the turning point is sooner for an obvious short term environmental hazard for the local population (Grossman, et al., 1995). Arrow in 1995 stated that responsiveness is not immediate so income growth does not spontaneously bring a reduction to environmental degradation. As such Arrow concludes that while short term indicators would support Kuznetss hypothesis, long term indicators would not. The huge potential for economic growth through effective utilisation of the environment has made efficient and socially desirable management of environment resources is a key issue within economics. The environment surrounding each individual economy has always been fundamental to the performance of economic growth. Along with creating economic prosperity the environment also performs the essential function of supporting life and thus managed with care and responsibility. As has been seen through history, exploitation of the environment which has provided crucial economic inputs may also be the instrument which impairs the earths ability to support life. For example, in last decade we have seen the emergence of concern about how economic expansion of the world economy is leading to irreparable global damage (Silbert, 2009). As such decisions regarding the environmental trade-off between economic growth and preservation require careful consideration from political authorities. Kuznets EKC Hypothesis EKC Analysis Conclusions One policy proposed by economists is to allow countries to economically grow out of environmentally damaging activity. Looking at countries with already large economies, we see signs of environmental regulation such as emissions standards, extensive recycling programs, and limited timber harvesting. The economists supporting a policy that initially allows for environmental degradation assert that if a country can achieve sufficient economic growth in a short period of time then perhaps environmental damage should be tolerated. A well-known hypothesis providing support for a policy that emphasizes economic growth at the expense of environmental protection is the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis. It posits that countries in the development process will see their levels of environmental degradation increase until some income threshold is met and then afterwards decrease. If true, economic policies should allow extensive, although not necessarily absolute, use of the environment for growth purposes. But carrying out such policies involves inherent dangers. If developing countries decide to overlook environmental protection by counting on rising incomes to abate environmental damage the consequences could be devastating. The most pressing danger is that additional environmental degradation could cause some irreversible and significant harm. This could occur before the predicted income threshold is met. The other concern with counting on incomes to reduce environmental damage is that the EKC hypothesis could easily be incorrect and relying on its predictions would lead to consistently insufficient protection. This paper evaluates the validity of the EKC hypothesis and argues that it is not a sound basis for policy formation and justification with so much at stake. The plan of the paper is as follows. Section II examines the basis for the EKC hypothesis and conditions under which it may accurately predict a countrys future environmental status. Section III briefly summarizes empirical studies investigating EKCs and looks at the findings of these studies. Section IV identifies the inherent dangers in determining environmental policy based upon the EKC hypothesis. Some concerns are relevant if the hypothesis does not hold and others are present even if it proves a correct forecaster of environmental quality. Section V concludes with my assessment of how well the hypothesis works as a justification for dubious environmental policies. Section II: The Concept of the Environmental Kuznets Curve The EKC hypothesis asserts that countries will naturally move from relatively low environmentally degrading activity to highly degrading activity and then, once a certain income threshold is achieved, will proceed to less degrading activity once again. This assertion allows one to predict the relative level of environmental damage being caused by a country by looking at GDP per capita. However, this prediction is relative to individual countries. In other words, each country has its own EKC, based upon resource endowment, social customs, etc., from which it progresses along relative to its GDP. A graphical model of the hypothesis helps illustrate the inverted U shape of the relationship: Environmental Damage Y* Income per capita The y-axis represents the amount of environmental damage due to economic activity and the x-axis represents income per capita. Y* represents the threshold income, sometimes referred to as the turning point. That point signifies the income level at which environmental damage per capita begins to recede. It is important to note that the theoretical EKC graph does not explicitly express time as a dimension and for this reason the use of the EKC hypothesis to justify policy decision an action that by definition incorporates time would appear inadequate. Only by comparing two different countries can the inverted U shaped curve be derived as seen above. However each country possesses its own unique EKC and therefore each countrys policies should be organized accordingly. In order for the graph to show an EKC, and thereby be valid as policy justification, we must incorporate a time dimension. We find a time dimension along the x-axis. The EKC hypothesis assumes that changes in income per capita only occur over time. By including this supposition of changes in income inherently signifying time, the graph can now show an EKC for a specific country. The identification of a countrys particular EKC provides a basis for using it to influence policy. Possessing the theoretical model by which t he EKC hypothesis is used for economic policy we turn our focus to explaining why the inverted U shape exists. There are two primary explanations for the proposed shape of the EKC. The first examines the history of developed countries and the paths they took to achieve development. The second reflects the changing preference for environmental quality as incomes rise. Historically, all developed countries economies were originally based upon agriculture, a state that produced little environmental damage. Their economies later switched to a much more environmentally damaging state that focused on industry and manufacturing. Finally, upon switching from heavy industry to the now-prevalent service-based economies the levels of environmentally damage fell in most developed countries. Two main factors lead to environmental damage that occurrs during industrialization. First, the harmful by-products of production damage the environment. High levels of pollution and water contamination accompany the expansion of industry. The second factor is the increased consumption of natural resources. The extensive over-use of land, deforestation and mining of mountains is a form of environmental damage in and of itself. A common conclusion of this development pattern is that LDCs must pass through the same phases in order to achieve economic growth. Furthermore, if forced to adhere to strict environmental regulations, LDCs will be at an economic disadvantage compared to the already developed countries. Many LDCs point to this competitive disadvantage when rejecting global environmental standards. The next stage of development saw industrial nations switching to service-based economies, a trend that all global GDP leaders tend towards. During this phase the income threshold of for the EKCs for certain substances appear to have been reached. Service-based economies are able to avoid many of the most environmentally damaging economic activities. Also, highly resource-dependant production is cut significantly which reduces the impacts of resource input and harmful emissions. The graph reflects the switch from an industrial to service-based economy somewhere around point Y*. The decreasing industrial production decreases the environmental damage despite the rising GDP associated with the service sector economy. Environmental impacts also fall as a result of improved technology discovered in developed countries. In some cases technology leads to a more efficient use of inputs. Other technological advancements make it possible to restrict the harmful effects that economic activity have on the environment. The second reason that a high-income level can reduce environmental damage is by altering the demand for environmental quality. Known as the income effect, sufficiently high GDP per capita often leads individuals to place environmental quality above additional economic growth. The aggregation of these individual preferences plays an integral role in determining the income threshold. The EKC income threshold aggregates all environmentally damaging agents into a single numerical value. However, taken individually economists can place dollar values on the turning points of damaging agents. For example, in a 1997 paper by Cole, Rayner and Bates, the authors found the turning point of CO and NO2 emissions to be around $9,900 and $14,700, respectively. Using environmental quality preference as an explanation, the income threshold represents the income level per capita at which the preference for environmental quality outweighs the preference for additional income. This change in preference occurs on a public level, rather than a private one. Microeconomic decisions to support more environmentally friendly goods and services cannot account for the income effect. The issue is instead a matter of public policy. The changes in environmental standards reflect political pressure on the federal government and state governments. Effective lobbyists have altered the political and social landscape to favour one of increased environmental quality. Despite the clean nature of high-income countries it remains difficult for EKC supporters to explain certain things such as the fact that the United States is, by far, the worlds largest greenhouse gas emitter. Defenders of the EKC hypothesis say this is due to the incredibly large economy of the U.S. and that the seemingly large figures are, proportionate to GDP, not as astonishing as they appear. The only other defense to the greenhouse gas emission statistic is that the income threshold may not have been reached. According to the EKC hypothesis, changes to evolving economies and the individual preference for environmental quality combine to determine the income threshold. However, whether or not an inverted U shaped curve exists at all is still up for debate. Section III: Evidence For and Against the EKC Hypothesis Evidence regarding the EKC hypothesis is circumstantial and inconclusive. Most early studies that supported the hypothesis focused on a single damaging agent, such as a pollutant. Identifying key characteristics associated with agents that have been studied we find that only certain types of agents exhibit an EKC. Evidence supporting the EKC first began in 1994 when Selden and Song found an EKC for SO2 (Environmental quality and development: Is there a Kuznets curve for air pollution emissions?, 1994). A later test in 1995 by economists Grossman also found SO2 emissions to follow an EKC (Grossman, et al., 1995). They found a turning point between $4,000 and $6,000. Another early documentation of EKC support came from Theodore Panayotou who found the turning point of deforestation to be $823. After the initial studies, other economists began to investigate the validity of the EKC hypothesis and found refuting evidence. In the 1997 paper by Cole, Rayner and Bates, they found no EKC for traffic, nitrates or methane. A different study in 1997 by Horvath examined energy use and found no EKC; rather, energy use per capita rose steadily with increased income. Evidence appears to support the EKC hypothesis only for a limited type of damaging agents. The emission SO2 is found in urban waste areas and is thereby characterized by its locality. Deforestation also reflects a situation involving a specific location. Damaging agents that affect only a particular site tend to show EKCs. However, a damaging agent such as traffic is plain to see and also affects certain areas heavily. In this case the agent is dominated by a scale effect increased activity leads to increased environmental impact. While traffic-related pollution is generally iterated by population size, damaging agents such as energy production by-products increase with GDP per capita. Section IV: Dangers of the EKC Hypothesis as Policy Justification There exist many dangers in allowing an economy to simply grow out of environmentally damaging activity. Some of these dangers arise because the EKC hypothesis does not hold true in all cases. Others exist even if we assume the hypothesis as an accurate predictor of environmental conditions. The following is a list of concerns regarding the EKC hypothesis: (I) It remains inconclusive if most damaging agents follow the EKC. (II) The threshold income may be irrelevantly high or the temporary period of increasing environmental damage too long. (III) The decrease in environmental damage seen in developed countries may reflect the production of dirty products abroad and subsequent importation. (IV) The absorptive capacity of our earth is unknown. (V) EKCs may only exist in certain political atmospheres. A detailed examination of the above concerns illustrates the inherent dangers in accepting the EKC hypothesis and afterwards using it to justify policy. As discussed above, only local and regional damaging agents show signs of EKCs. Other difficult to detect agents may simply increase with GDP per capita. This discovery leaves open to question whether more agents than not respond to income increases. If there exist more agents that do not respond then attempting to grow past these impacts would be impossible. Many damaging agents may respond to income levels, but not until GDP per capita approaches out-of-reach levels. If in a developed country, the turning point for a damaging agent is above, say, $50,000 then neglecting to react will create damage for a considerable amount of time. Over the time it takes to achieve the turning point, the environmental damage may prove more costly than its worth. Obviously, in an LDC the turning point value needs only to be considerably lower and still have the same adverse effects. It is important to note that it is unclear if forgoing the opportunity for economic growth may is the right or wrong decision. Nonetheless, using solely the EKC hypothesis to justify this action remains unwise, as the outcome is not known. Another consideration that challenges the EKC evidence is that wealthy countries may be importing dirty products, thereby contributing to environmental degradation; the only difference is that the degradation is not domestic. The first hypothesis to bring up this possibility was the Pollution Haven hypothesis. It states that developed countries export their dirty industries to LDCs whose governments have more lax environmental standards. Many economists discounted this hypothesis with strong evidence showing that capital flows do not follow environmental regulations. However, this does not exclude the possibility of dirty industries existing in LDCs and coincidently exporting their products to wealthy countries. In this case, wealthy countries only started along the downward slope on the EKC by domestically reducing environmental damage. When taken globally their increased consumption due to income may still be increasingly damaging. Another danger is that leaving the quality of our environment subject to economic activity, even for only a short period, may be disastrous. The ability of the earth to absorb the damaging agents produced by economic activity, called absorptive capacity, is not yet known. A good example is global warming. More and more studies confirm that rising global temperatures are due at least in part to human activity. Predictions regarding the consequences of this change are still being debated. But further activity could push the environments limits to a point that causes serious repercussions for humanity. A final concern is that even if developing countries can achieve high levels of income per capita they may not possess a political atmosphere conducive to environmental protection. Assuming that the aggregate turning point is in a country reached, that country it is not necessarily going enact protection. Countries that possess sufficient demand for environmental quality still only achieve it with policy revisions. The most successful avenues for obtaining environmental quality are lobbyists. Without a government that responds to political pressure by these public groups there is no reason to believe that its policies will reflect the demand for a cleaner environment. In addition to this point, it also remains to be seen if all cultures place similar values on environmental quality. While constituents of currently developed countries may desire protection, countries in the process of developing may reach a point of equivalent income and still not demand environmental quality. Convers ely, they may actually demand protection earlier. Section V: Conclusion The questions and concerns about the EKC hypothesis that I have examined in this paper raise significant doubt as to the wisdom of adopting environmental policy based upon the EKC hypothesis. Even assuming its validity, the EKC hypothesis generates considerable doubt as to its effectiveness at balancing economic growth with environmental protection. Given these doubts policies must be, at most, based only partially on predictions by the EKC hypothesis. The correct balance between environmental protection and economic growth continues to be debated. Both of the opposing views present important arguments. Obviously, having either extreme either unhindered economic activity or overly protective environmental measures is an inadequate solution. The largest problem facing the debate is the lack of knowledge regarding the degree of robustness present in our earths environment. Still unclear of its ability to offer its resources and to soak up our by-products, our only course of action is to, with both needs in mind, tread carefully.
Wednesday, September 4, 2019
Pyrotechnics, The Art Of Fire :: essays research papers
Pyrotechnics is defined as the art of manufacturing or setting of fireworks. There are many different forms of pyrotechnics. Some consider fireworks dangerous, obnoxious bursts of noise; others consider them beautiful, artful displays of light. Either way you look at it, pyrotechnics is an interesting and dangerous hobby. Many colors and designs may be created by the placement of different compounds in distinct areas of the fireworks, either projectile or stationary ones. Some of the many different colors of the visible spectrum that can be easily recreated are; yellow, orange, red, green, and blue. The shades of yellow and orange can be easily recreated by the use of sodium or calcium chlorate. Red is easily attainable by the burning of SrCl. The burning of BaCl creates a very bright green. The burning of copper chlorate creates the blues. It would be extremely easy if we could just place these in the fireworks and have them work, however, the emitting molecules, especially SrCl and BaCl, are so reactive that they cannot be packed directly into a firework. To generate them, we need pyrotechnic compositions designed to generate the above molecules, to evaporate them into the flame and to keep them at as high temperature as possible to achieve maximum light output. To get good colors, there must be substantial amounts of emitters present in the flame. The emitters are not alone: in order to achieve the high temperature, a fuel - oxidizer system is also needed, as well as some additional ingredients. The colors of aerial fireworks come invariably from stars, small pellets of firework composition which contain all the necessary ingredients for generating colored light or other special effects. They may be as tiny as peas or as large as strawberries. A typical red star might contain Potassium perchlorate,      67% by weight Strontium carbonate          13.5% Pine root pitch (fuel)          13.5% Rice starch (binder)          6% In order to launch these beautiful displays into the sky, one must shoot them by means of a mortar or a rocket attached to the firework. To use a mortar, you must pack a propellant into the mortar and then place your firework inside. The subsequent explosion luanchs the mortar ball (your firework) into the sky, where it is free to explode in a 360 degree display of chemistry. Some fireworks are stationary, where all that is desired is a loud bang. Some of the best stationary fireworks are just straight, packed black powder in a small, sealed container (i.
Tuesday, September 3, 2019
“Ships at a Distanceâ€Â: Dreams in Their Eyes Were Watching God Essay
Zora Neale Hurston opens Their Eyes Were Watching God with an eloquent metaphor regarding dreams: â€Å"Ships at a distance have every man’s wish on board. For some they come in with the tide. For others, they sail forever on the horizon, never out of sight, never landing until the watcher turns his eyes away in resignation, his dreams mocked to death by Time (Hurston 1).†Hurston describes here how some dreams are achieved with time while others lurk out of reach until the dreamer gives up. Janie Crawford, protagonist of Their Eyes Were Watching God, encounters numerous ambitions throughout her life, mainly concerning a desire to somehow achieve something in life, and to not just go through the motions. While Janie’s dreams and my own do not exactly correspond, we both aspire to discover a greater passion in life and find a voice that will enable us to make a difference. When Janie is growing up, she is eager to become a woman and is ready to dive into the strain, maturity, and exhilaration of adulthood. In the beginning of Janie’s life story, Hurston introduces the metaphor of the pear tree, a symbol of Janie’s blossoming, and describes how â€Å"she had glossy leaves and bursting buds and she wanted to struggle with life but it seemed to elude her,†which successfully captures her excitement and perplexity of entering the adult world (11). Janie’s anxiety of growing up is also articulated with the image of her â€Å"looking, waiting, breathing short with impatience. Waiting for the world to be made†(Hurston 11). In her teenage years, it seems as if her life revolves around the anticipation of womanhood. Even as Janie grows older, she continues to hold on to her aspiration of living an adventurous, invigorating, and passionate life. In criti... ...le. Their Eyes Were Watching God. New York, NY: HarperCollins, 2006. Print. 4 Jordan, Jennifer. "Feminist Fantasies: Zora Neale Hurston's Their Eyes Were Watching God." Tulsa Studies in Women's Literature 7.1 (1988): 105-117. JSTOR. Web. 25 Mar. 2012. 464063>. 7 Kubitschek, Missy Dehn. â€Å"’Tuh De Horizon and Back’: The Female Quest in Their Eyes Were Watching God.†Black American Literature Forum 17.3 (1983): 109-115. JSTOR. Web. 28 Mar. 2012. . 8 Rosin, Hanna. â€Å"New Data on the Rise of Women.†Dec. 2010. TED Talks. Web. 28 Mar. 2012. . 2 â€Å"Their Eyes Were Watching God Reader’s Guide - Introduction.†The Big Read. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Mar. 2012. .
Monday, September 2, 2019
Theft has Learned the Internet Essay -- Technology, Identity Theft
Identity theft is a major problem in the United States and is growing ever year. In 2003, identity theft cost business and consumers close to $53 billion and identities stolen from around 10 million Americans (Dinev 77). Identity theft is where someone can pretend to be someone else, and to make financial charges under the victim’s name, leaving all the troubles of fixing the victim’s financial troubles to the victim while the theft continues to steal until they either are caught or move on to another victim (Vacca 4). In 1998, identity theft became illegal even though this issue has been around for ages (Hoffman and McGinley 1). The traditional way of identity theft is â€Å"pinched wallet or pilfered mail†also is known as â€Å"dumpster diving†(Yount 71).Also, the Internet plays a big role in identity theft. In the Internet, a thief can hide from detection while stealing peoples’ identities from their homes, being able to steal peoples’ i nformation one by one â€Å"then disappearing into another identity,†(Vacca 60). Internet users must know about the risk of online identity theft, so that they can protect themselves from this threat. Most criminals are smart and clever; they are finding new ways to steal peoples’ personal information every day. For example, phishing is when someone receives an email saying that there is a problem that needs to be fix immediately; included was a hyperlink to the site, but the site the person is direct to is a brilliantly created fake that looks just like the original but instead steals the information that person provided (Sheetz 93). People blame themselves all the time if their identities are stolen because they think they were too careless with their information. However, phishing is hard not to fall... ...by itself, and online identity theft is like a very think branch off of identity theft. Since online identity theft has different ways of becoming a victim and protecting from being a victim. Criminals are constantly using the Internet to their advantage, so that they can make their lives better at the cost of others. There are many people who are hurt by identity theft who are not able to turn their lives around. Even though the Internet is growing every day, so do the different ways people can lose their identities. Ergo, the task of protecting people from online identity theft is also changing. This issue seems like one that will never go away, so people must fight back in order to protect themselves from this criminal act. The question remains: have you done any of these tasks to protect yourself and if not then how do you know if you still have your identity?
Sunday, September 1, 2019
Reviewing Films Depicting Supremacy of Artificial Intelligence Essay
There is without a shadow of a doubt that we are now living in a time when there is almost nothing we cannot accomplish. The outbreak of high technology all around the world is soaring, and day by day, improvements on what is already highly intelligent devices are being developed. From computers, to cellular phones, to MP3 players, everything has been made accesible to man. Because of this technology, man can bask in his creations and marvel at the genius that he has invented through the years. Half a decade ago, today’s technology wouldn’t have even been deemed as possible. Yesteryear’s most advanced technological developers probably wouldn’t have even dreamed of the possibilities of what we now have today. But such is the development of the human mind: our intelligence is further developing and increasing, being able to establish new concepts and ideas to be used for our own benefits. Indeed, with this highly advanced technology, we are further establishing ourselves as the dominant species of the planet. For us, we are in charge of our own destinies, and no species of another kind can tell us otherwise. But one is lead to ponder about the marvels of our own creations. What if the articifial intelligence we created were able to evolve themselves? What if these computers suddenly became self-aware, and starts acknowledging its own existence? It is true that we are the one who controls the technology, but what if the technology were able to control itself? If it became self-aware, what if, all of a sudden, it starts to refuse to follow its human creators? And if not the computers themselves, what if one person controlling these technologies started using them for their own ulterior motives? With our main defenses relying on technological advances, what if these advances were suddenly used against us? Would the humans still be able to lay its claim as the rulers of the earth when a something else establishes themselves as more intelligent and dominant? Such is the fear that some of us have: the fear of having our own technology turned against us. We fear the idea that perhaps someday, these computers that we have in our homes would become intelligent enough to start recognizing its own existence. In the early nineties, technophobia became rampant among the adults, although this fear was largely based on the misconceptions on computers being too overly complicated. Still, for some people, the advancements in technology is reason for them to be cautious about our own inventions. Creating Technopobia in Movies Since early in the 1980s, there have been a string of movies depicting highly advanced technology being used woefully and without any regard towards others. These movies often show state-of-the-art gadgets or creations, which are used against the protagonists to further cause ruin and devastation. Oftentimes these gadgets are used for the wrong reasons, and with its infinite possibilities, it creates the fear that maybe what we have created may not be totally beneficial to us, and could possibly create more harm than help in the long run. Perhaps the most popular among the movies that came out during the eighties that depicted this theme was the 1984 movie Terminator, starring Arnold Schwarzenegger as a human cyborg sent back in time. In the future, Skynet, a computer system fights a losing war against the humans who built it, and who it nearly exterminated. Just before being destroyed, Skynet sends a Terminator back in time to kill Sarah, the mother to be of John Connor, the Leader of the human resistance. The terminator can pass for human, is nearly indestructible, and has only one mission: killing Sarah Connor. One soldier is sent back to protect her from the killing machine. He must find Sarah before the Terminator can carry out it’s mission (MGM. com). This movie portrays Skynet as a super computer, one that is capable to making decisions for itself. The super computer becomes self-aware, and recognizes the human race as a threat to its existence. It therefore wages a war against all of mankind, which almost led to the anniliation of the entire planet. In 1998, the movie ‘Enemy of the State’ provided a different insight on abusing highly advanced technology. Robert Dean, the main character of the story, is just a successful and gutsy labor lawyer when he runs into an old college friend who was a big hurry. Unknown to him, that friend secretly drops a disc and viewer containing footage of a political assassination overseen by the senior advisor to the National Security Agency. Unfortunately, that politician soon learns what Dean has in his possession and secretly uses the vast resources of the NSA to find, investigate and stop him before he goes public. Soon, Dean finds himself on the run, with his assests frozen, his loved ones watched and actively hunted by NSA agents using all the survellience technology they have available. Not knowing what is going, Dean must stay one step ahead while trying to figure out the cause of this mess (Yahoo! Movies). This movie dwells on the idea of government surveillance and the invasion of our personal privacy by the government. We see from the movie that these technological advances could be easily used against us, and just as it could make our lives easier, it could also make it extremely difficult. We also find that if technology were to be used the wrong way, then those in power could have a commanding control over our very lives. Another movie that depicted computers going against humans was the highly acclaimed ‘The Matrix’. Thomas A. Anderson is a man living two lives: by day he is an average computer programmer and by night a malevolent hacker known as Neo. Neo has always questioned his reality but the truth is far beyond his imagination. Neo finds himself targeted by the police when he is contacted by Morpheus, a legendary computer hacker branded a terrorist by the government. Morpheus awakens Neo to the real world, a ravaged wasteland where most of humanity have been captured by a race of machines which live off of their body heat and imprison their minds within an artificial reality known as the Matrix. As a rebel against the machines, Neo must return to the Matrix and confront the agents, super powerful computer programs devoted to snuffing out Neo and the entire human rebellion (Whatisthematrix. com). The movie is almost identical to the concept of the Terminator, in which there is a computer mind that becomes self-aware of its own existence. Knowing that it has the power of technology, it sees the human race as disposable, and decides to take over and control the entire world. When Neo met Morpheus, he was awakened to the fact that they were being used by the computer systems as mere batteries to continue sustaining their own power. And it was up to them to reawaken the rest of the world from this nightmare that is the Matrix. The Fear of Control What these three films had in common was theme of technology taking over the human lives. The films shared similar highly advanced technology that in one way was very helpful, but at the other end caused problems that were catastrophic. This is what we are afraid of; that maybe perhaps at some point, our own creations would backfire on us and cause a lot of harm towards society, and it would perhaps be unstoppable when it happens. Perhaps what motivates the persistence of these kinds of themes is the fact that we all know that this fantasy that they try to present could and might become possible in the future. Fifty or so years ago, our technology today wasn’t even thought of as possible. A lot of things are being developed today that our predescessors couldn’t have possibly dreamed of back in the day. Nowadays, the sky is the limit. The human race is making every dream come to life, developing newer and better technology every single day. So deep inside, we know that this threat of computers taking over is not a long shot. We see that perhaps someday, artificial intelligence would become this advanced as to be self-aware. And if this happens, what’s gonna stop them from taking over the world and eliminating the human race? In terms of humans going against fellow humans using technology, we ourselves could be comparable to this technology. Donna Haraway mentions how we are like the cyborgs, which are both part machine and part organism. She further states: In short, we are cyborgs. The cyborg is our ontology; it gives us our politics. The cyborg is a condensed image of both imagination and material reality, the two joined centres structuring any possibility of historical transformation. In the traditions of â€Å"Western†science and politicsâ€â€the tradition of racist, male- dominant capitalism; the tradition of progress; the tradition of the appropriation of nature as resource for the productions of culture; the tradition of reproduction of the self from the reflections of the otherâ€â€the relation between organism and machine has been a border war (Harraway, 516). With the peer-to-perr capabilities of networked computer communication today, it is likely to have a major impact on both the film and music business. Depending on how this technology is used, it could have either a postive or negative effect on these industries. Everything could be made easier with technology, films and music could be produced with relative ease, and everything to be made more accesible. On the other hand, changing the sytems could mean doing things a lot different, which could cause a chain reaction among those who are involved. Business could be done more efficiently, but it could leave people out of jobs. Human work might be replaced by much more efficient computers doing their jobs, and that could have an effect on the economy of the country. Looking back, technology has certainly come along way since back in the old days, when all of this conveniences didn’t exist. It is easy to picture people being intimidated by these advancements, due to its infinite potential. Depending on how it is used, it could be very good for all of us, or it could be catastrophic to all. Only time will tell whether these technological improvements would come back to haunt us in the long run. Works Cited Enemy of the State. Yahoo! Movies. Retrieved 3 June 2008 from http://movies. yahoo. com/shop? d=hv&cf=info&id=1800021531 Haraway, Donna. â€Å"A Cyborg Manifesto. †The New Media Reader (1985). pp. 515-541. The Matrix Trilogy. Whatisthematrix. com. Retrieved 3 June 2008 from http://whatisthematrix. warnerbros. com/ The Terminator. MGM. com. Retrieved 3 June 2008 from http://www. mgm. com/title_title. php? title_star=TERMINAT
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